۱۳۸۸ فروردین ۱۷, دوشنبه

فرهنگ و ارتباطات 2

Communication And Culture A Collection of Observations by Gerry & Elizabeth Wilson The University of Calgary Edward T. Hall defines culture as: ...man's medium; there is not one aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture. This means personality, how people express themselves (including shows of emotion), the way they think, how they move, how problems are solved, how their cities are planned and laid out, how transportation systems function and are organized, as well as how economic and government systems are put together and function. It is the least studied aspects of culture that influence behaviour in the deepest and most subtle ways (Hall, 1976, p. 14). When we discuss communication and culture, we should be aware of the total spectrum of communication including language, non-verbal communication, customs, perceived values, and concepts of time and space. Do all tourists identify with Canadian traditions and values? Likely not. But the more interesting question is: Why not? The answer lies in the simple fact that most tourists come from different cultures: some vastly different like those from Japan and China, others less different, such as tourists from Eastern Canada or the United States. Even if tourists share the same language, they may have much different customs and values. What happens when people from different cultures interact face-to- face? One way to appreciate the impact of cultural differences is to look in the mirror. When Americans and Canadians travel to other countries, they look for Cokes, steaks and hamburgers and the same amenities in hotels and other accommodations that they are used to at home. While the host country may offer an authentically different culture, which is one of the reasons people travel, North Americans tourists are notorious for wanting the comforts of home wherever they may be. In many third world countries, North Americans seek out joint venture hotels to enjoy North American food and lodging and to be served by people who speak English. Strangely, what we expect for ourselves in travel is not deemed to be reasonable when we're the hosts dealing with tourists from other countries. THE JAPANESE: One of the functions of culture is to provide a highly selective screen between man and the outside world. In its many forms, culture therefore designates what we pay attention to and what we ignore (Hall:1976:74). For example, Hall tells about an American businessman who registered in a Japanese hotel, telling them he intended to stay for one month. After 10 days, without notice, he is moved to another room. He discovers this by accident and is surprised to find that all his personal items have been placed around the room in almost the identical position to that in which he had put them his first room. Not wishing to make a fuss, he says nothing. To his surprise, he is moved two more times, each time without notification. Eventually, when he returned to the hotel instead of just asking for the key to his room, he would ask whether he was in the same room. During the last week, he was moved again, but this time into another hotel (Hall:1976:50)! Two variables associated with culture are involved here. One is that in Western societies, moves are associated with status - the lowest ranking individual is the one moved. Second is the significance of space. Being quite territorial, Westerners want to make sure that a move does not involve moving to a smaller space (Hall:1976:52-54). Looking at this same situation from a Japanese cultural perspective, when a person enters a hotel he/she becomes part of a family. As a member of the family, the hotel feels they can quietly move you if the need arises. Taking such liberties with your accommodation signals that you belong, that you are a member of the family. However, the Japanese are also familiar with the reaction such moves have on Westerners. They are sensitive to the fact that other cultures react loudly to being moved and having their personal items touched with out their permission. Many hotels who cater to Westerners abide by the rules of the visitor's culture and would not think of moving the person (Hall:1976:56). The familiarity displayed in the example above is more likely to occur in a hotel located well away from normal tourist territory. All over the world, suitable environments have been created for tourists that shield them from the reality of the life of the people. Tourists seldom stick around for long, and they are happier if insulated from the full impact of the foreign culture (Hall:1976:49). However, in the case quoted above, the forced move to the second hotel turned out to be a blessing. The American businessman found the district around the new hotel much more interesting and authentic than that around the first hotel. As Hall notes, each culture has its own language of space which is as unique as the spoken language Hall:1976:52-3). In a Japanese hotel, all visitors are given the same kind of bath robe. This is not just the results of an opportunistic management using the guests to advertise the hotel. Rather it symbolizes that once you had registered in the hotel, you were no longer an outsider. You belonged. You became a member of a large, mobile family. As a family member, you are afforded an environment which is relaxed and informal (Hall:1976:56). But remember, no matter how informal or relaxed you may feel, meal-time is not appropriate for discussions of business ( Hall: 1987:108). It is important for the Japanese to be able to place people in a social system. In fact, it is impossible to interact with someone else if this placing has not occurred, hence the requirement that you state who you are on your calling card: first, the organization you work for, second, your position in that organization, then, your degrees, honours you have received, followed by the family name, the given name and address (Hall:1976:58). In Japan there are two sides to everyone - the warm, close friendly involved side, that does not stand on ceremony, and the public, official, status conscious, ceremonial side, which is what most foreigners see. Most Japanese feel quite uncomfortable about the ceremonial side of life. Their principal drive is to move from the stand on ceremony side toward the intimate, friendly side. Think about the practice of men and women sleeping side by side crowded together on the floor in a single room, and the camaraderie of communal bathing. Japanese cultural communication seems full of paradoxes (Hall:1976:59). When they communicate, particularly about important things, it is often called indirection by foreigners (Hall:1976:56). Gifts are especially important to Japanese and specifically gifts from abroad. They particularly appreciate liquor, candy, food, or handicrafts from foreign countries. Never refuse a gift, it is the ultimate insult. Japanese etiquette books describe in detail the kind of gift that is expected from people at different levels in the social and economic hierarchy, including the amount that you should spend on gifts for people in different categories (Hall:1987:109). These observations about the Japanese are symbolic of the wide range of differences which affect communication between cultures. However, there are just as many differences with other cultures. THE GERMANS: Germany is not a melting pot society and Germans are not mobile. Many stay in their geographic region and even the same house for generations. The scale of everything is smaller in Germany than in the Western countries. They love the outdoors, open spaces and treasure forests. Hiking is a popular sport (Hall:1990:38). To the German space is sacred. Homes are protected by a variety of barriers, fences, walls, hedges solid doors, shutters and screening to prevent visual or auditory intrusion (Hall:1990:38). Germans seldom invite anyone who is not a close friend to their home. To be invited is considered an honour. When you arrive bring a small bouquet for the hostess (not red roses which convey romantic attachment). Flowers should be unwrapped before being presented (Hall:1990:39). Positions in things is also important - for example, the right side represents a place of respect (Hall:1990:42). So, in seating arrangements or just walking from one place to another, the senior person or the group leader should be placed on the right. The German sense of privacy is very strong. Learn what is considered personal and do not ask questions that may be offensive. Americans feel that Germans do not interact with neighbours and perceive German behaviour as unfriendly. German friends of many years continue to address each other by their last names: "Herr Schmidt" not "Walter". Germans are careful not to touch accidentally or to encourage signs of intimacy. On the other hand, they do maintain direct eye contact in conversations to show they are paying attention. However, the German who speaks most softly and to whom others defer is the one to pay attention to, not the one who makes the most noise. Order is a dominant theme in German culture. There is order in all things, including space--they are very sensitive to spatial intrusions. One exception to orderliness is behaviour in lines for service, in stores, at ticket counters, or in boarding planes, especially where there is no seat assignment. Germans do not form queues but instead crowd and push and can be very rough. They do not yield when someone says "Excuse me". Their determination to be served overrides their usual need to avoid physical contact. However, these are exceptions. Generally, Germans expect organization and order in all things-- everything should be carefully planned, researched thoroughly and carried out in an orderly manner (Hall:1990:39-42). They have a strong drive for conformity and object strenuously when people fail to obey signs and directions. Westerners feel that things are meant to be used; and if they serve no useful purpose, we dispose of them. The German attitude is that things have great intrinsic value. We feel remiss if we buy books and don't read them. But a German will feel that it is important to own a book even if one can't read it immediately. Sales of hard-cover books exceed sales of paperback books in Germany (Hall:1990:46). Associated with their demand for high-quality, long-lasting goods is the German abhorrence of waste. Waste is a sin, such as heating, cooling and lighting buildings when it is not necessary (Hall:1990:46). Germans are value- conscious and always insist on getting their money's worth. Don't ever try to sell them goods that are less than high quality. They appreciate, in fact demand, fine workmanship, design and high-quality material. A television ad that is effective in the U.S. will have to be translated into print media to reach Germans. Germans are print-oriented, which explains in part why there is so little advertising on German TV (Hall:1990:30). Also, Germans are always looking for what is "true" and to them numbers are a way of signalling that a product is exactly as it has been represented. Germans demand facts, facts and more facts. THE FRENCH: It is not uncommon for Americans to experience difficulty getting the French - even those whom they know and have done business with- to reply to inquiries, even urgent ones. This can be exasperating. The reasons are many, but most have to do with the importance of immediate human contacts to the French. A solution that succeeds when other methods fail is to use a surrogate to relay messages, rather than relying on a letter or a phone call. Why? Because letters and phone calls are not personal enough. If you send a properly placed emissary, one whom the individual you are trying to reach likes and trusts and considers important, you add the necessary personal touch to your message and will thereby release the right response. The French also stress the importance of observing the many rituals of form. If you don't use the right form, the message conveyed is that you are ignorant or ill-mannered or don't care. In any event, the response that is provoked is almost certain to be negative. Remember that the French deplore casualness and informality. Paying attention to the details and being correct in everything you do is the only tactic that releases the right response from the French (Hall:1990:30). CONTEXT: Another important aspect of communication is the level of context in which the message is passed. Linguists and anthropologists use the terms 'high' and 'low' context to indicate how much information is required for successful communication. High-context communication is one in which most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, while very little of the message is actually in words (Hall:1976:79). Couples often can communicate with a look, or a nod of the head at most. Low-context communication is just the opposite: most of the information is verbalized. Twins who have grown up together can and do communicate more economically (high context) than can opposing lawyers in a courtroom during a trial (low-context) (Hall:1976:79). In the Far East, high-context communication is much more common than in North America. This can lead to serious misunderstanding. A businessman was invited to lunch with a Japanese friend atop one of Tokyo's new skyscrapers with all of the city spread out below them. The Japanese host chose the occasion to give an overview of some of the sticky points in US- Japanese relations. In his own way, indirect but very clear, he said there were certain things that the Americans had missed in Japanese culture (Hall:1976:141). For the Japanese to show anger is tantamount to admitting loss of control (and face), unless, of course, things have gone too far. No warning signs are given and Westerners as well as Europeans will unconsciously push and push - looking for structure, pattern, and limits. Because they are unfamiliar with the system, they will go too far. With the Japanese culture, one must make haste slowly and engage the most skilful, subtle interpreter of the culture you can find (Hall:1976:142). The greater the cultural distance, the more difficult the interface. An example of easy-to-interface communication would be Germany and Switzerland. The cultural distance in this case is not great since both cultures are low context as well as monochronic, a concept discussed in the following section (Hall:1990:27). A difficult-to-interface communication would be France and the United States. If you're communicating with a German, remember they are low-context and will need lots of information and details. If you're communicating with someone from France, they are high-context and won't require as much information (Hall:1990:28). Context is the information that surrounds an event; it is inextricably bound up with the meaning of that event. The elements that combine to produce a given meaning -- events and context -- are in different proportions depending on the culture. The cultures of the worlds can be compared on a scale from high to low context (Hall:1990:27). Japanese, Arabs and Mediterranean peoples, who have extensive information networks among family, friends, colleagues and clients and who are involved in close personal relations are high-context. As a result, for most normal transactions in family life they do not require, nor do they expect, much in- depth background information. This is because they keep themselves informed about everything having to do with the people who are important in their lives. Low-context people include Americans, Germans, Swiss, Scandinavians and other northern Europeans. They compartmentalize their personal relationships, their work, and many aspects of day-to-day life. Consequently, each time they interact with others they need detailed background information. The French are much higher on the context scale than either the Germans or the Americans. This difference can affect virtually every situation and every relationship in which the members of these two opposite traditions find themselves. "Contexting" performs multiple functions. For example, any shift in the level of context is a communication. The shift can be up the scale, indicating a warming of the relationship, or down the scale communicating coolness or displeasure--signalling something has gone wrong with a relationship. High context people are apt to become impatient and irritated when low- context people insist on giving them information they don't need (Hall:1990:10). Conversely, low-context people are at a loss when high- context people do not provide enough information. One of the great communication challenges in life is to find the appropriate level of contexting needed in each situation. Too much information leads people to feel they are being talked down to; too little information can mystify them or make them feel left out. Ordinarily, people make these adjustments automatically in their own country, but in other countries their messages frequently miss the target (Hall:1990:9). Americans, to some extent, and Germans, to a greater extent, rely heavily on auditory screening, particularly when they want to concentrate. High-context people reject auditory screening and thrive on being open to interruptions and in tune with what goes on around them. French and Italian cities periodically bombard you with noise. DIFFERENT CONCEPTS OF TIME: Another important factor in cross-cultural communication is the concept of time. For example, in Germany if you arrive late by even a few minutes, no one will be impressed by your sales presentation, no matter how good it is. Indeed, they may not even wait around to hear it (Hall:1990:28). We can divide people into two rough categories with respect to time: monochronic and polychronic people. Monochronic people tend to do one thing at a time, concentrate on the job at hand, take time commitments seriously and are concerned not to disturb others. They also tend to be rule followers, show great respect for private property, seldom borrow or lend and emphasize promptness. In addition, they are low-context in terms of the category discussed earlier. Polychronic people are almost opposites in all of the above. They are high-context types, who do many things at once, are highly distractible and subject to interruptions. While they consider time commitments objectives to be metif possible, they are more concerned with relationships, especially family and friends (Hall:1990:15). As mentioned above, promptness is taken for granted in Germany. In fact, it's almost an obsession. If there is a chance you'll be late for an appointment, phone ahead. The Germans want to know where people are at all times; not knowing violates their sense of order (Hall:1990:36). It is always important to know which segment of the time frame is emphasized. Eastern peoples tend to be past-oriented. Others, such as those in the urban United States, are oriented to the present and short-term future. Still others, such as Latin Americans, are both past and present oriented. In Germany, where historical background is very important, every talk, book, or article begins with background information giving an historical perspective. This irritates many foreigners who keep wondering "why don't they get on with it? After all, I am educated. Don't the Germans know that?" The Japanese and the French are also steeped in history, but because they are high-context cultures, historical facts are alluded to obliquely. At present, there is no satisfactory explanation for why and how differences of this sort came about (Hall:1990:17). The key to understanding Japanese time is to know that the Japanese have two modes: a monochronic mode for foreigners and technology and a polychronic mode for virtually everything else. The Japanese switch from an open system for those in their inner circle to a more closed and tightly scheduled system for outsiders. To an outsider everything in Japan is rigidly scheduled. They organize a visitor's time and present him with a full schedule upon arrival. However, as one comes to know the Japanese, one discovers another aspect of their time system-- flexibility (Hall:1990:114). Historical past is important to Japanese and they take it for granted that the visitor will be familiar with the main points of Japanese history. When dealing with the Japanese one must keep in mind that many important things are frequently left unsaid. When the Japanese meet with foreigners, the most important thing on their agenda is to get to know them. They are quite expert at determining what tactics are effective with foreigners and will try various strategies to see what works. They also ask many probing questions, testing your knowledge and your sincerity and conviction. Japanese admire people who are serious about their work, well informed, sincere and honest. They want to have some understanding of and feeling for the people involved. Do not be impatient. If you deny the Japanese this opportunity to become acquainted, you will not succeed in matters. Do not mistake hospitality for friendship (Hall:1987:114). SPACE: In humans, territoriality is highly developed and strongly influenced by culture. It is particularly well developed in the Germans and the Americans. Americans tend to establish places that they label "mine" - a cook's feeling about a kitchen or a child's view of her or her bedroom. In Germany, this same feeling of territoriality is commonly extended to all possessions, including the automobile. If a German's car is touched, it is as though the individuals himself has been touched. Space also communicates power. In German and Americans the top floor is more important than others, while for the French middle floors are more important (Hall:1990:11). Personal Space: This is another form of territory. Each person has around him an invisible bubble of space which expands and contracts depending on a number of things: the relationship to the people nearby, the person's emotional state, cultural background, and the activity being performed. Few people are allowed to penetrate this bit of mobile territory and then only for short periods of time. Changes in the bubble brought about by cramped quarters or crowding cause people to feel uncomfortable or aggressive. In northern Europe, the bubbles are quite large and people keep their distance. In southern France, Italy, Greece, and Spain, the bubbles get smaller and smaller so that the distance that is perceived as intimate in the north overlaps normal conversational distance in the south. This means that Mediterranean Europeans "get too close" to the Germans, the Scandinavians, the English and those Americans of Northern European ancestry. In northern Europe, one does not touch others. Even the brushing of the overcoat sleeve used to elicit an apology (Hall:1990:11). MEMORY: In addition to the talents that people are born with, culture has always exerted a dominant influence on memory and thinking. In Iran, for example, schools emphasize verbal memory. Iranian educators do not care how students store and retrieve information just as long as they remember. In earning their living in later life, they must continue to be able to recall blocks of material even at relatively low organizational levels in government. The verbal memory system, like many cultural systems, is integrated into the rest of the culture and is felt in all areas of life (Hall:1976:160). CONCLUSION: Insensitivity to customs of "guests" in Western countries will not only result in misinformed decisions, but may also precipitate resentment. When we experience a form of cultural shock (something outside our normal experience), we have to remember a simple maxim: "What they are doing makes sense to them." BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hall, Edward T., Beyond Culture, Anchor Press/Doubleday, Garden City, New York, 1976 Hall, Edward T., and Hall, Mildred Reed, Hidden Differences, Doing Business With the Japanese, Anchor Press, Doubleday: Garden City, New York, 1987 Hall, Edward T., and Hall, Mildred Reed, Understanding Cultural Differences, Intercultural Press, Inc., 1990. Terpstra, Vern and David, Kenneth, The Cultural Environment of International Business, Southwestern Publications, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1985 top of page © John Mark Ministries. 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